During the colonial period of the 16th through 18th centuries, the Spanish colonizers used systems of forced labor and tribute to operate their mines, farms, and cattle ranches. At the same time, the Maya traditional culture was based in the slash-and-burn agricultural practice called milpa. This relationship between the land and crops, combined with a shared language and belief system, allowed for the maintenance of a coherent Maya identity. As a result, when Maya lands and traditions were threatened by the colonial system, the Maya resisted in a long series of raids, battles, and confrontations, all of which were brutally suppressed.

GALLERY 1

MAYA RESISTANCE MOVEMENTS DURING THE COLONIAL PERIOD: THE FIRST 300 YEARS

1624

REBELLION OF SACALUM

The ah k’in (prophet) Pool exhorted the Mayas to expel the Spanish troops who were encamped at Sacalum as they prepared for a battle with the Petén Maya in what is today Guatemala. The soldiers captured in the surprise attack were sacrificed, their hearts extracted as offerings to the Maya gods. The ah k’in Pool was captured and brought to Mérida where he was tortured and hanged.

1761

REBELLION OF JACINTO KAN EK’

In the town of Quisteil, a fire broke out in the church during the patron saint’s festival, attributed as arson to Jacinto Kan Ek’. After the fire, the priest fled and Kan Ek’ demanded that the Spanish recognize him as “King of Yucatán.” They refused and the movement grew. Kan Ek’ lived in the church and dressed in the crown and blue cape of the Virgin of the Concepción. He named himself consort of the Virgin, adopting the title “King Jacinto Uk of the Saints Kan Ek’ Chichan Moctezuma.” His Maya army battled the Spanish but eventually was defeated and the town destroyed. Kan Ek’ was captured, tortured, and quartered alive.

1560–1562

MOVEMENT OF SOTUTA AND MANÍ

The Maya were inspired to return to their ancient rites after a destructive hurricane was interpreted as a sign of the anger of the gods towards those who abandoned their religion. After the Maya were discovered still engaging in their traditional religious practices, Friar Diego de Landa ordered the auto-da-fé (an Inquisition ritual of public confession) of Maní, torturing and forcing thousands of Maya to admit their participation in the insurrection movement. Landa also destroyed numerous pre-Hispanic codices (illustrated hieroglyphic books) in this massive retaliation.

1546

MAYA REBELLIONS OF CHINKINCHEL, SOTUTA, TAZES, CUPUL, COCHUAH AND UAYMIL

Indignation over the Spanish founding of Valladolid atop the ancient center of Saci incited the Maya to action. The principal leader of this movement was the chilam (priest) Anbal. The Maya sacrificed 16 captured Spaniards as an offering to their traditional gods.

1565

CONSPIRACY OF VALLADOLID

This movement was led by Pablo Beh, chilam of Kiní, and Baltasar Ceh, batab (local authority) of Tecoh, who called for the restoration of worship of the ancient Maya gods. Beh and Ceh were discovered, captured, and handed over to the religious authorities for punishment.

1580–1583

REBELLION OF THE MAYA OF CAMPECHE

A batab of Campeche, Francisco Chí, tried to encourage a religious insurrection against the Franciscan evangelizers. The movement sought to expel the Spanish, restore a pre-Hispanic society, and raise a Maya army. The government immediately took notice and Chí was captured, hanged, and decapitated.

1585

CONSPIRACY OF CAMPECHE

This anti-colonial movement was masterminded by the batab Cocom of the town of Sotuta. The plot was discovered and Cocom was captured, but he escaped and reorganized his effort. The movement acquired a great store of weapons and awaited a divine sign to begin the war. The government discovered the conspiracy and after a military and religious trial, Cocom was tortured and hanged.

1597

CONSPIRACY OF SOTUTA

The h-men (Maya healer) Andrés Chí led this movement based on a return to the veneration of the Maya gods. Chí also proposed to destroy all plants and animals that had been introduced to the Yucatan by foreigners. Chí was discovered by the Spanish authorities and sentenced to the gallows.

1600–1670

PROPHETIC CONSPIRACY OF THE MAYA OF TZUCTOK

This long movement was led by the halach uinic (supreme authority) Juan Yam of the town of Tzuctok. It was inspired by prophecies related to ritual cycles of time that told the Maya to cease contact with the Spanish. The Spanish administration suppressed the movement, setting fire to the town of Tzuctok. The leaders took refuge in the jungle and were lost to history.

1610

MOVEMENT OF TEKAX

The leaders, ah k’ino’ob (prophets) Alfonso Chablé and Francisco Canul, sought to create a Maya Church as an alternative to the Catholic Church. They took over the functions of the Catholic rituals, calling themselves “Pope” and “Bishop,” celebrating mass, performing baptisms, ordaining priests, hearing confessions, administering communion, and replacing Catholic images with traditional Maya ones. Chablé and Canul were arrested and after a religious trial they were hanged and their bodies exhibited for several days in the town plaza of Tekax.

1636–1639

REBELLION OF THE MAYA OF BACALAR

During a large rebellion in the province of Bacalar, the Maya burned towns and fled to the jungle where they revived traditional religious practices. Franciscan friars sent to pacify the Maya were captured and forced to dress like Maya before they were released. Eventually, the rebels joined the ranks of the Itzás in the Petén, who were not subdued by the Spanish until 1697.

Illustrations based on the artwork of Marcelo Jiménez Santos and Elio Carmichel